Social Media as an Instrument of Public Diplomacy in the Digital Era: A Systematic Literature Review
Main Article Content
Abstract
The rapid evolution of digital platforms has reshaped the landscape of diplomacy, creating new opportunities for public interactions. Social media has emerged as a pivotal element in the practice of public diplomacy, enabling nations and governmental entities to communicate with a global audience. However, the use of social media carries an underlying challenge in engaging foreign audiences, especially for developing countries, which is rather difficult to get attention from the international community. By utilizing the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta- Analyses Method (PRISMA), this SLR will investigate the differences and strategies of social media utilization as a prosperous public diplomacy instrument between developing and developed countries. Moreover, the outcomes of this SLR are anticipated to provide methods for best practices in social media analysis and choose a fixed platform for information dissemination according to the public characteristics of each country. Findings indicate that developing countries have not yet utilized social media effectively and require additional strategies to improve its use. Furthermore, they still emphasize solving specific concerns, especially in politic area, while developed countries mostly focused in shaping public perception for nation branding. The results also suggest that Twitter is the predominant platform for conducting content analysis in social media. The study highlights the importance of implementing effective strategies and policy actions to address the challenges and optimize the positive impact of digital platforms in promoting international relations.
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KHUSNU PERDANI, Mizana et al.
Social Media as an Instrument of Public Diplomacy in the Digital Era: A Systematic Literature Review.
Policy & Governance Review, [S.l.], v. 8, n. 3, p. 284-302, oct. 2024.
ISSN 2580-4820.
Available at: <https://journal.iapa.or.id/pgr/article/view/976>. Date accessed: 02 oct. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.30589/pgr.v8i3.976.
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
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Wang, R., & Xu, W. W. (2023). Hashtag framing and stakeholder targeting: An affordance perspective on China's digital public diplomacy campaign during COVID-19. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 20(3), 250–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2022.2096742
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Boatwright, B. C., & Pyle, A. S. (2023). "Don't Mess with Ukrainian Farmers": An examination of Ukraine and Kyiv's official Twitter accounts as crisis communication, public diplomacy, and nation building during Russian invasion. Public Relations Review, 49(3), 102338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pubrev.2023.102338
Bolgov, R., Bogdanovich, S., Yag'Ya, V., & Ermolina, M. (2016). How to measure the digital diplomacy efficiency: Problems and constraints. In Communications in Computer and Information Science (Vol. 674, pp. 180–188). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49700-6_18
Collins, N., & Bekenova, K. (2019). Digital diplomacy: success at your fingertips. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 15(1), 1–11. https://doi. org/10.1057/s41254-017-0087-1
Collins, S. D., DeWitt, J. R., & LeFebvre, R. K. (2019). Hashtag diplomacy: twitter as a tool for engaging in public diplomacy and promoting US foreign policy. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 15(2), 78–96. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-019-00119-5
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Garud-Patkar, N. (2022). Is digital diplomacy an effective foreign policy tool? Evaluating India's digital diplomacy through agenda- building in South Asia. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 18(2), 128–143. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41254-021-00199-2
Habibullah, & Xiguang, L. (2022). Exploring the extent of digitalisation and digital diplomacy in Pakistan embassies. Journal of International Communication, 28(2), 206–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/13216597.2022.2073255
Hayden, C. (2018). Digital Diplomacy. The Encyclopedia of Diplomacy, 1–13. https:// doi.org/10.1002/9781118885154.dipl0068
Helbach, J., Hoffmann, F., Pieper, D., & Allers, K. (2023). Reporting according to the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses for abstracts (PRISMA-A) depends on abstract length. Journal of Clinica Epidemiology, 154, 167–177. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2022.12.019
Ingenhoff, D., Calamai, G., & Sevin, E. (2021). Key Influencers in Public Diplomacy 2.0: A Country-Based Social Network Analysis. Social Media and Society, 7(1). https://doi. org/10.1177/2056305120981053
Ingenhoff, D., & Chariatte, J. (2020). Solving the Public Diplomacy Puzzle— Developing a 360-Degree Integrated Public Diplomacy L is t ening and Ev al uation A ppr oach t o Analyzing what Consitutes a Country Image from Different Perspectives.
Ittefaq, M. (2019). Digital diplomacy via social networks: A cross-national analysis of governmental usage of Facebook and twitter for digital engagement. Journal of Contemporary Eastern Asia, 18(1), 49–69. https://doi.org/10.17477/jcea.2019.18.1.049
Jia, R., & Li, W. (2020). Public diplomacy networks: China's public diplomacy communication practices in twitter during Two Sessions. Public Relations Review, 46(1), 101818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pubrev.2019.101818
Jiménez-Alcarria, F., & Tuñón-Navarro, J. (2023). EU digital communication strategy during the COVID-19 vaccination campaign: Framing, contents and attributed roles at stake. Communication & Society, 36(3), 153-174. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.36.3.153-174
Kwao Dawson, J., Twum, F., Hayfron Acquah, J. B., & Missah, Y. M. (2023). PRISMA Archetype- Based Systematic Literature Review of Security Algorithms in the Cloud. Security and Communication Networks, 2023, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/9210803
Luqiu, L. R., & Yang, F. (2020). Weibo diplomacy: Foreign embassies communicating on Chinese social media. Government Information Quarterly, 37(3), 10147 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2020.101477
Manor, I. (2019). A Discussion of the Digitalization of Public Diplomacy. 323–352. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-030-04405-3_10
Manor, I., & Huang, Z. A. (2022). Digitalization of public diplomacy: Concepts, trends, and challenges. Communication and the Public, 7(4), 167–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/20570473221138401
Marcus, H. (2015). Digital Diplomacy and International Change Management (1st Editio, pp. 13 – 32).
Mboya, C. (2021). Kenya's digital diplomacy amid COVID-19: New tools in an old toolbox? South African Journal of International Affairs, 28(3), 429–448. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2021.1960596
Mickoleit, A. (2014). Social Media Use by Governments: A Policy Primer to Discuss Trends. 26, 71. http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/governance/social-media-use-by-governments_5jxrcmghmk0s-en#page1
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder,
E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 134, 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jclinepi.2021.03.001
Page, M. J., Moher, D., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E.
W., Mayo-Wilson, E., Mcdonald, S., … Mckenzie, J. E. (2021). PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: Updat ed guidance and e xemplar s f or reporting systematic reviews. The BMJ, 372. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n160
Rethlefsen, M. L., Kirtley, S., Waffenschmidt, S., Ayala, A. P., Moher, D., Page, M. J., Koffel, J. B., Blunt, H., Brigham, T., Chang, S., Clark, J., Conway, A., Couban, R., De Kock, S., Farrah, K., Fehrmann, P., Foster, M., Fowler, S. A., Glanville, J., … Young, S. (2021). PRISMA-S: An extension to the PRISMA statement for reporting literature searches in systematic reviews. Journal of the Medical Librar y Association, 109(2), 174–200. https://doi. org/10.5195/jmla.2021.962
Sevin, E., Ayhan, K. J., & Ingenhoff, D. (2021). Capturing country images: a methodological approach. Journal of International Communication, 27(2), 237–257. https:// doi.org/10.1080/13216597.2021.1903965
Shamseer, L., Moher, D., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., Shekelle, P., Stewart, L. A., Altman, D. G., Booth, A., Chan, A. W., Chang, S., Clifford, T., Dickersin, K., Egger, M., Gøtzsche, P. C., Grimshaw, J. M.,
Groves, T., Helfand, M., … Whitlock, E. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (prisma-p) 2015: Elaboration and explanation. BMJ (Online), 349, 0–25. https:// doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g7647
Sharp, P. (2009). Diplomatic Theory of International Relations. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/ CBO9780511805196
Shumba, E. (2021). An investigation into 'Wolf Warrior' diplomacy in Africa via Twitter and Facebook at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. South African Journal of International Affairs, 28(3), 471–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2021.1976267
Šimunjak, M., & Caliandro, A. (2020). Framing #Brexit on Twitter: The EU 27's lesson in message discipline? The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 22(3), 439–459. https://doi. org/10.1177/1369148120923583
StatCounter (1999-2023). (n.d.). Social Media Stats Europe. Retrieved October 29, 2023, from https://gs.statcounter.com/social- media-stats/all/europe/#monthly-201901-202309-bar
The United States Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy (ACPD). (2021). 2021 Comprehensive Annual Report on Public Diplomacy & International Broadcasting. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j& q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUK EwiCr7HO6uuBAxVkSzABHUlFCY4QFnoEC BgQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.state. gov%2Fwpcontent%2Fuploads%2F2022%2F03%2F2021-ACPD-Annual-Report-508- WEB.pdf&usg=AOvVaw2xCyXPlS1eXHn4b CiAiIhX&opi=89
Tran, E. (2023). Twitter, Public Diplomacy and Social Power in Soft-balancing China–France Relati289ons. Journal of Contemporar y China, 33(146), 267–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2023.2193150
Uysal, N., & Schroeder, J. (2019). Turkey's Twitter public diplomacy: Towards a "new" cult of personality. Public Relations Review, 45(5), 101837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2019.101837
Wang, R., & Xu, W. W. (2023). Hashtag framing and stakeholder targeting: An affordance perspective on China's digital public diplomacy campaign during COVID-19. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 20(3), 250–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2022.2096742
World Bank Group. (2024). Time to stop referring to the "developing world." World Development Indicators. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/time-stop-referring-developing-world
Zhang, Y., & Ong'ong'a, D. O. (2022). Unveiling China's digital diplomacy: A comparative analysis of CGTN Africa and BBC News Africa on Facebook. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, 7(3), 661–683. https://doi.org/10.1177/20578911211068217
Zytoon, M., & Husain, S. (2023). Digital Diplomacy as Tools of Communications Networks in foreign policy. Wireless Personal Communications. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-022-10124-2