Artificial Intelligence in Governance: The State of Facial Recognition Technology in Canada
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Abstract
Innovation in public service delivery can help the rapid transformation of society into a post-COVID era. In addition to minimizing administrative hassles, efficiently using Artificial Intelligence (AI) can protect citizens from unwanted behaviors. AI broadly denotes the efficiency of computers in replicating human intelligence, such as identifying different patterns and making predictions and decisions. AI encompasses numerous techniques, and machine learning is one of the most widely used. Machine learning is a method of deploying large datasets to make predictions that improve over time with more data. By 2030, Canada aims to have one of the most robust national AI ecosystems in the world, founded upon scientific excellence, high-quality training, deep talent pools, public-private collaboration, and their strong value of advancing AI technologies to bring positive social, economic, and environmental benefits for people and the planet. This study intended to assess the overall situation of AI in governance and policy compliance. I found that the country relies on patchwork and faces numerous legal and practical issues owing to the absence of an umbrella policy and organization. This research also proposes ideas to enhance governance to improve biometric data protection, legal frameworks, and quality standards for collecting biometric data based on the FRT. This study is based on focus group discussions, policy papers of the government of Canada, and many other literature and research articles.
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PRASAD ADHHIKARI, Achyut.
Artificial Intelligence in Governance: The State of Facial Recognition Technology in Canada.
Policy & Governance Review, [S.l.], v. 9, n. 3, p. 334-349, sep. 2025.
ISSN 2580-4820.
Available at: <https://journal.iapa.or.id/pgr/article/view/1275>. Date accessed: 01 nov. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.30589/pgr.v9i3.1275.
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
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Johnson, K. (2022). How wrongful arrests based on AI derailed 3 men's lives. Wired. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.wired.com/story/wrongful-arrests-ai-derailed-3-mens-lives/.
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Kroll, J. A. (2022). ACM TechBrief: Facial Recognition Technology. ACM. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3520137p.2.
Law, K. (2021). Students Share Concerns about Facial Recognition on Campus Security Cameras. Daily Bruin.
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Muhammad, F. (2014). Leadership, Governance, and Public Policy Implementation Competencies in the Broader Public Sector. European Journal of Business and Management 6(36), 66-73. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/ EJBM/article/view/17352.
Nanos Research. (2021). Canadians' Views on Artificial Intelligence. Innovation, Science, and Economic Development Canada. Retrieved September 3, 2023. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2021/isde-ised/ Iu4-396-2021-eng.pdf
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Paul, K. (2020). Ban This Technology': Students Prot est US Universities' Use of Facial Recognition. The Guardian, 2020.
Peterson, J. C., Uddenberg, S., Griffiths, T. L., Todorov, A., & Suchow, J. W. (2022). Deep models of super ficial face jud gments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(17), e2115228119. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115228119
Raji, I.D., Gebru, T., Mitchell, M., Buolamwini, J., Lee, J., & Denton, E. (2018). Saving Face: Investigating the Ethical Concerns of Facial Recognition Auditing. Proceedings of the AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, 2020, pp. 145-151; Melendez, S. Uber Driver Troubles Raise Concerns About Transgender Face Recognition. Fast Company, 2018.
Richardson, R. (2023). Facial Recognition in the Public Sector: The Policy Landscape. February 3, 2021. Retrieved August 30, 2023 https://www.gmfus.org/news/facial-recognition-public sector policy landscape
Robertson, K., Khoo, C., & Song, Y. (2020). To Surveil and Predict: A Human Rights Analysis of Algorithmic Policing in Canada. Citizen Lab and International Human Rights Program,2020. 25.
Rogers, E. M., & Marshall, L. R. (2003). Diffusion of innovations. Free Press.
Sharif, M., Bhagavatula, S., Bauer, L., & Reiter, M. K. (2016). Accessorizing a Crime: Real and Stealthy Attacks on State-of-the-Art Face Recognition. Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security, 1528– 1540. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https:// doi.org/10.1145/2976749.2978392
Standard Council of Canada. (2021). Canadian Data Governance Standardization Roadmap. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.scc.ca/en/system/files/publications/ SCC_Data_Gov_Roadmap_EN.pdf.
Stark, L. (2019). Facial Recognition is the Plutonium of AI. XRDS: Crossroads. The ACM Magazine for Students, 25(3), 50-55.
Stark, L. & Hutson, J. (2021). Physiognomic Artificial Intelligence. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.or g/10.2139/ ssrn.3927300
Stevens, Y., & Brandescu, A. (2021). Weak privacy, weak procurement: The state of facial recognition in Canada—Center for Media, Technology, and Democracy. Centre for Media, Technology and Democracy. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.mediatechdemocracy.com/work/weak-privacy-weak-procurement-state-of-facial-recognition-in-canada.
Wirtz, B. W., Weyerer, J. C., & Geyer, C. (2019). Artificial intelligence and the public sector: Applications and challenges. International Journal of Public Administration, 42(7), 596–615.
Browne S. (2015). Dark matters: On the surveillance of blackness. Duke University Press.
Buolamwini, J., & Gebru, T. (2018). Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in commercial gender classification. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/buolamwini18a.html
Buolamwini, J. (2019). Response: Racial and Gender Bias in Amazon Recognition—Commercial AI System for Analyzing Faces: Medium, 2019, Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://medium.com/@Joy.Buolamwini/response-racial-and-gender- bias-in-amazon-rekognition-commercial-ai- system-for-analyzing-faces-a289222eeced
Burke, L. (2020). Facial Recognition Surveillance on Campus. Inside Higher Ed, 2020.
Canadian Civil Liberties Association (2022). Facial Recognition-CCLA. Canadian Civil Liberties Association. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://ccla.org/our-work/privacy/surveillance-technology/facial-recognition/
CII (2023). Artificial Intelligence in Governance, Confederation of Indian Industry, 17 May 2023, Retrieved August 30, 2023 from https://ciiblog.in/artificial-intelligence-in-governance/
Council of the Canadian Academy. (2021). Leaders in the Digital Economy: The Governance of artificial intelligence in Canada. Council of the Canadian Academy.
Crumpler, W, & Lewis, J A (2021). How Does Facial Recognition Work?: A Primer", Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep32894
Daly, P. (2023). Mapping Artificial Intelligence Use in the Government of (2023). SSRN. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://ssrn.com/abstract=4459314.
Facial personality analytics, Faception, (n.d.), Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https:// www.faception.com/
FMPRC. (2022). "Position Paper of the People's Republic of China on Strengthening Ethical Governance of Artificial Intelligence (AI)", Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Retrieved August 31, 2023 from https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zy/wjzc/202405/t20240531_11367525.html
Forbes. (2023). How Does China's Approach To AI Regulation Differ From The US And EU?", 18 July 2023, Retrieved August 31, 2023 from https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbeseq/2023/07/18/how-does-chinas-approach-to-ai-regulation-differ-from- August 31,d-eu/?sh=1f38971f351c
Forbes. (2012). Data Protection Act and General Data Protection Regulation: Big data, artificial intelligence, machine learning and data protection. UK Information Commissioner's Office. Gartner Inc. (n.d.), Gartner Hype Cycle Research Methodology,
Gartner. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.gartner.com/ en/research/methodologies/gartner-hype- cycle
Garvie, C. (2019). Garbage In, Garbage Out: Face Recognition on Flawed Data.
Georgetown Law Center on Privacy and Technology. 2019.
Goodfellow, I. J., Shlens, J, & Szegedy, C. (2014). Explaining and Harnessing Adversarial Examples. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://arxiv.org/abs/1412.6572
Government of Canada. (2011). Values and Ethics Code for the Public Sector, Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.tbs-sct.canada.ca/pol-cont/25049-eng.pdf
Government of Canada. (2016). Key Leadership Competency profile and examples of effective and ineffective behaviors, Government of Canada. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.canada.ca/en/treasury-board-secretariat/services/professional- development/key-leadership-competency-profile/examples-effective-ineffective-behaviours.html
Government of India. (2023). AI can be the backbone of India's Governance through Tech, Government of India, Retrieved August 30, 2023 fromhttps://blog.mygov.in/editorial/ai-can-be-the-backbone-of-indias-governance-through-tech/
Gritsenko, D. & Zherebtsov, M. (2021). E-Government in Russia: Plans, Reality, and Future Outlook. The Palgrave Handbook of Digital Russia Studies, pp. 33-51, Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-42855-6_3
Grother, P., Ngan, M., & Hanaoka, K. (2019). NISTIR 8280: Face recog nition vendor test part 3: Demographic effects, National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8280
Hao, K. (2019). A US Government Study Confirms Most Face Recognition Systems are Racist. MIT Technology Review.
Innovation, Science, and Economic Development Canada (2019). Canada's Digital Charter in Action: A Canadians Plan for Canadians. Government of Canada. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/062.nsf/eng/h_00109.html
Israel, T. (2020). Facial Recognition at a Crossroads: Transformation at our Borders & Beyond. Samuelson-Glushko Canadian Internet Policy and Public Interest Clinic, 2020.
Johnson, K. (2022). How wrongful arrests based on AI derailed 3 men's lives. Wired. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.wired.com/story/wrongful-arrests-ai-derailed-3-mens-lives/.
Kamolov, S., Molchanovskaya, I., & Kaunov, E. (2021). Artificial intelligence is a strategic instrument for the economic development of Russia and the improvement of its public administration. E3S We b Conference, 291. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202129104002.
Knight, W. (2023). China Is the World's largest face recognition dealer. Wired, January 24, 2023. Retrieved September 2, 2023 from https://www.wired.com/story/china-is-the-worlds-biggest-Face recognition dealer/.
Kroll, J. A. (2022). ACM TechBrief: Facial Recognition Technology. ACM. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3520137p.2.
Law, K. (2021). Students Share Concerns about Facial Recognition on Campus Security Cameras. Daily Bruin.
Leitner, C., & Stiefmueller, C. M. (2019). Disruptive Technologies and the Public Sector: The Changing Dynamics of Governance. In Public Service Excellence in the 21st Century (pp. 237-274). Springer Nature, Singapore. Retrieved September 3, 2023 form https://doi-org.proxy3.library.mcgill.ca/10.1007/978-981-13-3215-9_8.
Linardatos, P., Papastefanopoulos, V., & Kotsiantis, S. (2020). Explainable AI: A Review of Machine Learning Interpretability Methods. Entropy, 23(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ e23010018.
Marsi, L. (2023). Facial recognition helps Putin curb dissent with the aid of U.S. technology. Rwetters, March 28, 2023. Retrieved September 2, 2023 from https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/ukraine-crisis-russia-detentions/.
McPhail, B. (2021). Clearview AI Engaged in "Mass Surveillance Canadian Civil Liberties Association. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://ccla.org/privacy/surveillance-technology/clearview-ai-engaged-in-mass-surveillance/.
McSorley, T. (2022). Standing committee on access to information, privacy and ethics [Presentation to the House of Commons]. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.ourcommons.ca/DocumentViewer/en/44-1/ETHI/meeting-12/evidence
Melendez, S. (2018). Uber Driver Troubles Raise Concerns About Transgender Face Recognition. Fast Company.
Muhammad, F. (2014). Leadership, Governance, and Public Policy Implementation Competencies in the Broader Public Sector. European Journal of Business and Management 6(36), 66-73. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/ EJBM/article/view/17352.
Nanos Research. (2021). Canadians' Views on Artificial Intelligence. Innovation, Science, and Economic Development Canada. Retrieved September 3, 2023. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2021/isde-ised/ Iu4-396-2021-eng.pdf
Office of the Privacy Commissioner in Canada. (2020). Cadillac Fairview collected 5 million shoppers. Retrieved September 3, 2023, https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-news/news-and-announcements/2020/nr-c_201029/.
Office of the Privacy Commissioner in Canada. (2021). Police use of facial recognition technology in Canada and the way forward: Special report to Parliament on the OPC's invest ig a t ion int o t he RCM P's use of Clearview AI and draft joint guidance for law enforcement agencies considering the use of facial recognition technology. Retrieved on September 3, 2023 from https://epe.lacbac. gc.ca/100/201/301/weekly_acquisitions_ list-ef/2021/2150/publications.gc.ca/ collections/collection_2021/cpvp-opc/ IP54-110- 2021-eng.pdf p.15-16.
Paul, K. (2020). Ban This Technology': Students Prot est US Universities' Use of Facial Recognition. The Guardian, 2020.
Peterson, J. C., Uddenberg, S., Griffiths, T. L., Todorov, A., & Suchow, J. W. (2022). Deep models of super ficial face jud gments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(17), e2115228119. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2115228119
Raji, I.D., Gebru, T., Mitchell, M., Buolamwini, J., Lee, J., & Denton, E. (2018). Saving Face: Investigating the Ethical Concerns of Facial Recognition Auditing. Proceedings of the AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, 2020, pp. 145-151; Melendez, S. Uber Driver Troubles Raise Concerns About Transgender Face Recognition. Fast Company, 2018.
Richardson, R. (2023). Facial Recognition in the Public Sector: The Policy Landscape. February 3, 2021. Retrieved August 30, 2023 https://www.gmfus.org/news/facial-recognition-public sector policy landscape
Robertson, K., Khoo, C., & Song, Y. (2020). To Surveil and Predict: A Human Rights Analysis of Algorithmic Policing in Canada. Citizen Lab and International Human Rights Program,2020. 25.
Rogers, E. M., & Marshall, L. R. (2003). Diffusion of innovations. Free Press.
Sharif, M., Bhagavatula, S., Bauer, L., & Reiter, M. K. (2016). Accessorizing a Crime: Real and Stealthy Attacks on State-of-the-Art Face Recognition. Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security, 1528– 1540. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https:// doi.org/10.1145/2976749.2978392
Standard Council of Canada. (2021). Canadian Data Governance Standardization Roadmap. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.scc.ca/en/system/files/publications/ SCC_Data_Gov_Roadmap_EN.pdf.
Stark, L. (2019). Facial Recognition is the Plutonium of AI. XRDS: Crossroads. The ACM Magazine for Students, 25(3), 50-55.
Stark, L. & Hutson, J. (2021). Physiognomic Artificial Intelligence. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.or g/10.2139/ ssrn.3927300
Stevens, Y., & Brandescu, A. (2021). Weak privacy, weak procurement: The state of facial recognition in Canada—Center for Media, Technology, and Democracy. Centre for Media, Technology and Democracy. Retrieved September 3, 2023 from https://www.mediatechdemocracy.com/work/weak-privacy-weak-procurement-state-of-facial-recognition-in-canada.
Wirtz, B. W., Weyerer, J. C., & Geyer, C. (2019). Artificial intelligence and the public sector: Applications and challenges. International Journal of Public Administration, 42(7), 596–615.